4. Explain about elements of visual perception.
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Elements of Visual Perception:
Although the digital image processing field is built on a foundation of mathematical and
probabilistic formulations, human intuition and analysis play a central role in the choice of one
technique versus another, and this choice often is made based on subjective, visual judgments.
(1) Structure of the Human Eye:
Figure 4.1 shows a simplified horizontal cross section of the human eye. The eye is nearly a
sphere, with an average diameter of approximately 20 mm. Three membranes enclose the eye:
the cornea and sclera outer cover; the choroid; and the retina. The cornea is a tough, transparent
tissue that covers the anterior surface of the eye. Continuous with the cornea, the sclera is an
opaque membrane that encloses the remainder of the optic globe. The choroid lies directly below
the sclera. This membrane contains a network of blood vessels that serve as the major source of
nutrition to the eye. Even superficial injury to the choroid, often not deemed serious, can lead to
severe eye damage as a result of inflammation that restricts blood flow. The choroid coat is
heavily pigmented and hence helps to reduce the amount of extraneous light entering the eye and
the backscatter within the optical globe. At its anterior extreme, the choroid is divided into the
ciliary body and the iris diaphragm. The latter contracts or expands to control the amount of light
that enters the eye. The central opening of the iris (the pupil) varies in diameter from
approximately 2 to 8 mm. The front of the iris contains the visible pigment of the eye, whereas
the back contains a black pigment.
The lens is made up of concentric layers of fibrous cells and is suspended by fibers that attach to
the ciliary body. It contains 60 to 70%water, about 6%fat, and more protein than any other tissue
in the eye. The lens is colored by a slightly yellow pigmentation that increases with age. In
extreme cases, excessive clouding of the lens, caused by the affliction commonly referred to as
cataracts, can lead to poor color discrimination and loss of clear vision. The lens absorbs
approximately 8% of the visible light spectrum, with relatively higher absorption at shorter
wavelengths. Both infrared and ultraviolet light are absorbed appreciably by proteins within the
lens structure and, in excessive amounts, can damage the eye.
The innermost membrane of the eye is the retina, which lines the inside of the wall’s entire
posterior portion. When the eye is properly focused, light from an object outside the eye is
imaged on the retina. Pattern vision is afforded by the distribution of discrete light receptors over
the surface of the retina. There are two classes of receptors: cones and rods. The cones in each
eye number between 6 and 7 million. They are located primarily in the central portion of the retina, called the fovea, and are highly sensitive to color. Humans can resolve fine details with
these cones largely because each one is connected to its own nerve end. Muscles controlling the
eye rotate the eyeball until the image of an object of interest falls on the fovea. Cone vision is
called photopic or bright-light vision. The number of rods is much larger: Some 75 to 150
million are distributed over the retinal surface. The larger area of distribution and the fact that
several rods are connected to a single nerve end reduce the amount of detail discernible by these
receptors. Rods serve to give a general, overall picture of the field of view. They are not involved
in color vision and are sensitive to low levels of illumination. For example, objects that appear
brightly colored in daylight when seen by moonlight appear as colorless forms because only the
rods are stimulated. This phenomenon is known as scotopic or dim-light vision.
(2) Image Formation in the Eye:
The principal difference between the lens of the eye and an ordinary optical lens is that the
former is flexible. As illustrated in Fig. 4.1, the radius of curvature of the anterior surface of the
lens is greater than the radius of its posterior surface. The shape of the lens is controlled by
tension in the fibers of the ciliary body. To focus on distant objects, the controlling muscles
cause the lens to be relatively flattened. Similarly, these muscles allow the lens to become
thicker in order to focus on objects near the eye. The distance between the center of the lens and
the retina (called the focal length) varies from approximately 17 mm to about 14 mm, as the
refractive power of the lens increases from its minimum to its maximum. When the eye
Fig.4.2. Graphical representation of the eye looking at a palm tree Point C is the optical
center of the lens.
focuses on an object farther away than about 3 m, the lens exhibits its lowest refractive power.
When the eye focuses on a nearby object, the lens is most strongly refractive. This information
makes it easy to calculate the size of the retinal image of any object. In Fig. 4.2, for example, the
observer is looking at a tree 15 m high at a distance of 100 m. If h is the height in mm of that
object in the retinal image, the geometry of Fig.4.2 yields 15/100=h/17 or h=2.55mm. The retinal
image is reflected primarily in the area of the fovea. Perception then takes place by the relative
excitation of light receptors, which transform radiant energy into electrical impulses that are
ultimately decoded by the brain.
(3)Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination:
Because digital images are displayed as a discrete set of intensities, the eye’s ability to
discriminate between different intensity levels is an important consideration in presenting imageprocessing results. The range of light intensity levels to which the human visual system can adapt is enormous—on the order of 1010—from the scotopic threshold to the glare limit. Experimental evidence indicates that subjective brightness (intensity as perceived by the human visual system) is a logarithmic function of the light intensity incident on the eye. Figure 4.3, a plot of light intensity versus subjective brightness, illustrates this characteristic. The long solid curve
represents the range of intensities to which the visual system can adapt. In photopic vision alone,
the range is about 106. The transition from scotopic to photopic vision is gradual over the
approximate range from 0.001 to 0.1 millilambert (–3 to –1 mL in the log scale), as the double
branches of the adaptation curve in this range show.
The essential point in interpreting the impressive dynamic range depicted in Fig.4.3 is that the
visual system cannot operate over such a range simultaneously. Rather, it accomplishes this large
variation by changes in its overall sensitivity, a phenomenon known as brightness adaptation.
The total range of distinct intensity levels it can discriminate simultaneously is rather small when
compared with the total adaptation range. For any given set of conditions, the current sensitivity
level of the visual system is called the brightness adaptation level, which may correspond, for
example, to brightness Ba in Fig. 4.3. The short intersecting curve represents the range of
subjective brightness that the eye can perceive when adapted to this level. This range is rather
restricted, having a level Bb at and below which all stimuli are perceived as indistinguishable
blacks. The upper (dashed) portion of the curve is not actually restricted but, if extended too far,
loses its meaning because much higher intensities would simply raise the adaptation level higher
than Ba.
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